One of the five pillars of Islam.

The word fasting is the Turkishised form of the Persian word rūze, which is the Persian equivalent of the Arabic savm (sıyām), which means “abstaining from something, keeping oneself from something” in the dictionary. Savm and sıyâm and their derivatives are mentioned in thirteen places in the Qur’an and in many hadiths (M. F. ʿAbd al-Bābāqī, al-Muʿjam, “ṣvm” md.; Wensinck, al-Muʿjam, “ṣvm” md.). As a term, fasting refers to abstaining from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse from dawn until sunset with the intention of fulfilling the sharīʿah-defined worship. Serahsī’s definition of fasting as “the abstinence of certain persons from certain acts at a certain time for a certain purpose” aims to specify for whom this act of worship is considered authentic (al-Mabsūṭ, III, 54). The abstinence from the prohibitions of fasting during its duration is called imsāq, which means “the beginning of fasting, the moment of the beginning of fasting” (al-Mabsūṭ, III, 54). It is also used in its meaning. When the time comes, opening the fast duly, i.e. ending the fast, is called iftâr.

A) Fasting in religions before Islam. Fasting, which is performed by abstaining from eating, drinking and sexual intercourse for a certain period of time, fasting or not eating certain foods, keeping silent, protecting the mouth and ears from lies and bad words, etc., is found in almost all religions. Fasting has been observed for purposes such as repentance, penance, mourning and preparation for a ritual, as well as for magic and asceticism.

Judaism. In Judaism, fasting, which is primarily considered as a means of humbling the soul and used in the Old Testament with the form “tzom” or “innah nefesh”, was perceived as a requirement of the commandment “You shall afflict your souls” (Leviticus, 16/29) or as a preparatory ritual to be performed before praying to God as King David did (II Samuel, 12/16-18). In Isaiah (58/3-8) it is stated that true fasting should be supported by good deeds such as abstaining from evil, being humble, and helping the oppressed and the needy. It is understood from the statements in the Jewish sacred texts that fasting is a penance for the bad deeds that people do consciously or unconsciously and an expression of regret for such a situation. The act requiring atonement may be an act committed by the person himself, or it may be an immoral act or defect of his family or someone from the same lineage or even nation (I Kings, 21/1-10; I Samuel, 14/17-29; Jeremiah, 36/3-10). The most important fast in Judaism is the fast of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kipur). On that day, Jews express their regret for the mistakes they have committed during the year and ask for God’s forgiveness. In the Leviticus section of the Torah (16/29-31; 23/27-32), the religious ceremonies performed by the Jews on this day are described in detail. This fast, which is obligatory on all Jews who are not sick or infirm and who have reached the age of accountability before the law, is observed on the tenth day of Tishrei, the first month of the Jewish lunar calendar. The fast begins approximately one hour before sundown on the day of Ash Wednesday and continues until approximately 45 minutes after sundown on the following day (the tenth day). During this period, which exceeds twenty-five hours, it is forbidden to eat, drink, have sexual intercourse, wash and do any kind of cleaning, anoint oneself with oil, and wear anything made of leather, including shoes (Mishna, 8/1).

Other obligatory fasts in Judaism, which were introduced in the period after the first exile (586 A.D.), but which are also of Old Testament origin, are as follows: 1. The fast of the nine fasts (tishah beav). The first of the four fasts mentioned in the Old Testament book of Zechariah, it is to be observed on the ninth day of the month of Av (August) according to the Jewish lunar calendar. This fast, which is in reality a mourning fast, is referred to in the sacred text as “the fast of the fifth month” (Zechariah, 7/5; 8/19). This is because the beginning of the year, which in the Jewish lunar calendar was originally the first day of the month of Tishri (September-October), was temporarily changed to 1 April after the first exile. This fast is observed in remembrance of the destruction of the holy Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem twice, once in 586 B.C.E. and once in 70 A.D., and follows the fast of the Day of Atonement in importance. Like the fast on the Day of Atonement, this fast, which lasts for about twenty-five hours, is considered a religious duty that everyone must fulfil, except for minor children, the sick and the infirm. Another custom related to this fast is that on this day only laments from the books of Jeremiah and Job and chapters describing the destruction of the temple are read. Another important activity to be performed on this day is to visit the graves to remember the dead relatives and to ask God’s forgiveness for them (Moore, II, 65). 2. Fourth lunar fast (shivah asar be-tammuz). This fast, which is observed on 17 July according to the Jewish lunar calendar, commemorates the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (Zechariah, 8/19). Later, the capture of Jerusalem by the Romans and other catastrophes were added to this day and the related fast. This day also marks the beginning of a three-week period of mourning and fasting based on rabbinic authority. It differs from the above two fasts in that the duration of the fast is short (from sunrise to sunset) and worldly work is permitted during the fast. 3. Tenth month fast (asarah be-tevet). Another short fast to remember the siege of Jerusalem by Buhtunnasr, King of Babylon (Ezekiel, 24/1 ff.). 4. Seventh month fast (tzom gedalya). It is observed on the third day of Tishri to honour the memory of Gedaliah, the governor of Judah, who was the leader of the Jews who remained in Jerusalem during the first exile. Like the fasts of the fourth and tenth months, it begins at dawn in the morning and ends at sunset, and it is permitted to engage in secular work (II Kings, 25/25). Another fast that everyone is obliged to observe is the fast of Esther (Taanith Esther). According to the Jewish calendar, it is kept on 13 Adar (March) in memory of the three-day fast Queen Esther kept before appearing before the king (Esther, 4/16). It is an expression of gratitude to Esther for saving the Jews of Persia from total annihilation by learning in advance of the vizier Hāmān’s insidious extermination plan and reporting it in time. In addition to these fasts, there are special fasts in Judaism. In these fasts, which are kept as a vow or sacrifice in the event of a bad dream, the loss of a relative, or on the anniversary of such an event, or in the event of any distress, the duration of such fasts is from sunrise to sunset. In these fasts, worldly actions other than eating and drinking and sexual intercourse do not invalidate the fast.

Christianity. In accordance with the Jewish fasting tradition, the New Testament mentions that Jesus and the apostles fasted (Matthew, 6/16; Acts, 13/2; 14/23). Although there is no special fasting day or form of fasting instituted by Jesus Christ, Christians fasted especially on Wednesdays and Fridays in the early periods, and generally abstained from meat and dairy products during certain periods of the year. The reason for fasting on Wednesday and Friday was to remember and internalise the sufferings of Jesus Christ before and during his death. It is noteworthy that in the regions where the Western Church was influential, Wednesday fasts began to be replaced by Saturday fasts after the V century. In addition, three-day fasts at Easter and at the beginning of each season were added to these fasts and became widespread in the Christian world. There have been significant changes in the rules of fasting and abstinence periods, the work to be done on these days and the foods to be eaten, and differences have emerged between Christian denominations. There is no doubt that local cultures were influential in determining the practices related to fasting.

In today’s Christian world, there are mainly two types of fasting. 1. Thanksgiving fast. It is practised by abstaining from drinking alcoholic beverages before the Eucharist (bread and wine service), which takes place every week on Sunday. According to Catholics and Orthodox, the fast of thanksgiving begins on Saturday evening or immediately after dinner, whereas in different Protestant denominations it begins three hours before the Eucharist and ends at the conclusion of the service. 2. Church membership fasts. The most important and longest of these fasts, which are adopted by all Christian denominations except the Anglican Church, but which are practised in different ways, is the fast that was initiated in the IVth century to commemorate the fast of Jesus Christ in the desert for forty days and which corresponds to the forty days before Easter (ERE, V, 765-770). This fast, known as “Lent”, is generally interpreted by Christians as preparation for Easter. It is believed that thanks to such a fast, which is adorned with prayers and repentance, the person will reach Easter cleansed from spiritual impurities. Since Easter is set as the first Sunday after the fifteenth of April in accordance with the Jewish lunar calendar, the forty-day fasting period begins on the day called “Ash Wednesday” in February. The reason for this name is that on this day ashes, symbolising death and resurrection and forgiveness of sins, are sprinkled on Christians who are called to repentance in churches (Christian Religion, p. 137). In addition to this forty-day fast in preparation for Easter, Catholics and Orthodox Christians fast every week on Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays and before important feast days. According to Christians, the purpose of fasting or abstinence is to atone for sins and to blunt the desires of the soul. For this reason, every Christian is obliged to fast, except for the sick, infirm, children, soldiers and hard labourers. Those who cannot fast on the aforementioned days may make up for them at other times. The fasting person may eat only one meal a day (at noon or in the evening). Apart from that, it is possible to eat something light at any time of the day. Pleasurable substances such as cigarettes may not be used. Medicines can be taken in case of necessity.

In the Syriac Church, one of the Monophysite Christians, the annual fasts are listed as follows: 1. Great fast. It is kept by adding the seven-day “week of sorrow” fast to the forty-day pre-Easter fast, which is also accepted by other churches. 2. Nineveh fast. This is a three-day fast in February. 3. Early June fast. It is three days and is considered the fast of the apostles. 4. August fast. It is known as the fast of the Virgin Mary. 5. December Lent. It is observed between 5 and 25 December in preparation for Christmas. While the age of starting fasting is twenty in the Catholic Church, it is fourteen-fifteen in the Orthodox and Syriac churches.

Fasting in Indian Origin Religions. Fasting in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain and Sikh religions, which originated in the Indian peninsula and whose adherents mostly live here or in Far East Asian countries, is a worship that concerns only the clergy class in its current form. Because in these religions, worldly and religious duties are shared among the religious. The most important factor behind this is the caste practice in Hinduism and the influence of this understanding on other religious systems in the region. Although the religions of the region such as Buddhism and Jainism were opposed to the caste understanding especially at the time of their emergence, the caste-like class society structure was adopted among the members of these religions in time. In these religions, people belonging to upper classes such as Kshatriya and Vaisya, other than the clergy, can also fast if they wish.

a) Hinduism. In Hinduism, Brahmins, who constitute the clerical class, are obliged to fast frequently throughout the year, often for long periods of time. A Brahmin is obliged to learn religion until the age of twenty-five, and once he marries and enters the stage of family life, he is obliged to fulfil his caste obligations until his death. In his normal daily life, except for fasting days, a Brahmin in the family life stage may have two meals a day, one at about three o’clock in the afternoon and one in the evening just before bedtime (Dubois, p. 304). Apart from these, there are two main types of fasting practices in Hinduism in its present form. 1. Votive fasting. It is a fast that attracts great interest among Brahmins as well as members of other castes. Votive fasts are observed for at least fifteen days in a row in order to fulfil a desire. 2. Annual periodic fasts. Brahmins fast on the first and fifteenth days of each month according to the lunar calendar. In addition to these two days, some Brahmins also fast on the tenth, eleventh and twelfth days of the month and fast for at least five days every month. On the tenth and twelfth days they eat once a day, but on the eleventh day they do not eat at all during the day. Fasting on the eleventh day is especially important for widows and “sannyasins” who are completely devoted to religion. On this day, just as on the Jewish Sabbath or Day of Atonement, no worldly work is done, no rice is cooked, and only cakes and fruit are eaten for dinner (ibid., pp. 304-305). In addition to these monthly fasts, there is another fast observed especially by Brahmins devoted to the god Shiva, which starts in the morning of the thirteenth day of the month of Maga (15 February – 15 March) and lasts until the fourteenth day at dawn. During the fast of about twenty-four hours, eating, drinking and sexual intercourse are forbidden. Again, since the eighth day of the month of Sravana (15 August – 15 September) is the anniversary of the manifestation of Lord Vishnu in the form of Krishna, all Brahmins, especially Vishnu devotees, spend this day in abstinence. In addition, at midnight that day, they offer food such as coconut, peas, sugar and milk to Vishnu and various secondary gods and goddesses in the same pantheon. The next day they can return to normal life only after the morning prayer (ibid., p. 308). The main differences that distinguish Hindu fasts from the fasts of other religious systems are the prohibition of food made of rice on some fast days, the prohibition of all kinds of odours for women, and the prohibition of men to anoint their bodies with any oil, especially castor oil. Another characteristic of Hindu fasts is the prohibition of sleeping, especially during “shivaratri”.

b) Jainism. The practice of fasting in Jainism is a worship that concerns almost exclusively the clergy due to the de facto division of labour arising from the caste understanding among the adherents of this religion. In fact, Jainist clergymen, who can only eat plant foods other than onions and garlic even in their normal lives, can eat only one meal a day, between dawn and dusk. The Jainist monks and nuns who live in monasteries called “ashrama” are the ones who keep the practice of being content with begging, which is considered a means of spiritual purification in Hinduism, and which is insistently advised to the clergy (The Sacred Laws of Āryas [Vasistha], XIV, 46; The Laws of Manu, XXV, 64) alive in the most systematic and disciplined way today. Some of them eat only once every two, three or four days.

c) Buddhism. Buddhism, in terms of its general characteristics, is a religious system that attaches importance to asceticism and abstinence and considers the existing existence as evil. However, it is against all kinds of asceticism practices that are excessive. Because according to Buddhism, all kinds of excesses are an obstacle to one’s spiritual progress. Everyone, whether a cleric or not, must first and foremost eat enough to ensure that the sense organs can function regularly and healthily, and avoid leading a life of strict asceticism. Despite the Buddha’s negative attitude towards ascetic life, it is noticeable that contemporary Buddhists are greatly influenced by Hindu and Jainist religious traditions in the rules and practices related to monastic life. As a matter of fact, even in their normal daily life, like Jainist clergymen, they can only eat before zawal time throughout the day. They cannot put any solid food in their mouths from dawn until sunrise the next day. The Lamaists of Tibetan Buddhism fast for four days each month. Some of them consider it part of the fast to consume only starchy foods such as bread and potatoes and tea in the evening. The more ascetic ones do not eat or drink anything until sunrise the next day. Another common fasting practice among Tibetan Buddhists is the fast known as “nungnas”. The first two days of this four-day fast are days of prayer and confession of sin. From midnight on the second day until sunrise on the fourth day, the fasting person is not allowed to swallow even saliva or move his tongue. Therefore, prayers and supplications during this time are made secretly, not openly. In the last five days before the fifteenth day of the fourth month according to the Chinese calendar, which is accepted as the birthday of Buddha by all Buddhist sects, a strict vegetarian diet is followed and all kinds of animal foods are abstained (ERE, V, 764).

d) Sikh Religion. Sikhism, which emerged in North India in the XVth century after the activities of Kebîr and Guru Nanak, and which tried to reconcile various elements of Hinduism and Islam, can be said to be against the fasting practice existing in both religions at first glance. The following statements attributed to Guru Arjan reveal this situation: “I neither fast like Hindus nor observe Ramadan like Muslims. I serve Him and Him alone, He is my only refuge” (Singh, Message of Sikhism, p. 106). The Sikh religion maintains that the ultimate salvation envisaged by the religion can only be attained by keeping God’s name on the tongue and by a constant mental concentration centred on Him, and that means such as fasting, penance and yoga exercises are of no use in this path (Singh, The Sikh Way of Life, pp. 26-27).

Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism is also opposed to the practice of fasting. In fact, one statement in the Vendidad emphasises that anyone who fills his stomach with meat will have filled himself with a good spirit, and that such people are better than those who go all day without eating anything or only meat (Vendidad [Zend-Avesta, I], IV, 46). Zoroastrians define true fasting not as abstaining from eating and drinking, but as abstaining from making mistakes in actions, thoughts and speech. In Chinese religions such as Confucianism and Taoism, fasting is also observed for various purposes, such as ancestor worship ceremonies, in preparation for marriage ceremonies, or to concentrate the mind on a particular subject. Author: ALİ İHSAN YİTİK

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